PUSH/PULL SUPPLY CHAIN MODELS
　　推动价值链模型
　　A push model of the supply chain relies on manufacturers producing according to historical demand patterns and pushing products out to distributors and customers. Inventory is held at various points as a buffer against unexpected demand or production delays. By contrast, in a pull model demand stimulates production and delivery. Essentially, just-in-time inventory control is a pull model as ordering and production are triggered by customers’ orders. No orders are raised nor production started until there is downstream demand.
　　供应链的推动模型依赖于制造商根据历史需求模式来生产，然后将产品推向经销商和客户。存货是在不同的时点可以作为一个缓冲区来满足未预计的需求或者生产延误。与此相反，在推动模式下，需求刺激生产和运输。从本质上讲，无库存制度是一个推动模式，因为生产是因为已有的客户需求或客户订单。没有订单，就不会开始生产，直到下游有需求为止。
　　Of course, pure push or pull models exist only in theory: demand for a product will never cause a supply chain to start mining iron ore and producing steel. Nor will a push model guarantee that products made will be bought. At some point, in every supply chain, demand push will meet demand pull, and inventory will accumulate there. Note that large geographical distances between suppliers and customers, or processes that take time (such as growing crops) make pull systems more difficult to organise.
　　当然，纯粹的推动模型只存在于理论中：对产品的需求不会导致延迟开采铁矿石和钢铁生产。推动模型也不能保证产品会被买走。在某些时候，在每一个供应链，需求推动会满足需求拉动并且库存会积累。如果供应商和客户之间有大的地理距离或者过程需要较长时间（如种植农作物），那么推动模型将更难组织。
　　However, inventory can be minimised and customer service improved if all parties in the supply chain can be better synchronised and have the ability to react quickly. For example, a traditional model of replenishing inventory in supermarkets would rely on each supermarket issuing an order to suppliers, probably by electronic data interchange (EDI), once inventory falls below reorder level. However, orders then arrive ‘out-of-the-blue’ at suppliers, who either have to have sufficient production capacity or who have to hold inventories to respond quickly. A better way is to give suppliers access to supermarkets’ inventory records through an extranet so that inventory levels and rates of change can be monitored. Supplies can be dispatched even without having to wait for an order. In this way, suppliers will be much better able to anticipate demand and produce accordingly. Better synchronisation and lower inventory levels have been achieved.
　　然而，如果价值链中所有各方同步并且必须迅速作出反应，那么库存可以最小化并且客户服务将会改善。例如，一个传统的模型就是补充超市的库存，这个依赖于每个超市的电子数据，一旦存货达到再订购水平，其就会给供应商发布订单。然而，意外的订单使得供应商既没有足够的生产能力也没有足够的存货来应对。一个更好的方法让供应商通过外部网络进入超市的库存系统，使得库存水平和变化率可以进行监控。供应商可以在没有订单的情况下直接派送。这样一来，供应商将能够更好地预测需求然后相应的生产。更好的同步和更低的库存水平便可以实现。
　　Information technology is of great assistance in moving towards a pull model as it influences the downstream supply chain through the 6I’s of e-business:
　　l Intelligence – for example, internet sites can track user activity and from that analyse which products are growing or falling in popularity. Information can be fed directly into a data warehouse for subsequent analysis and data mining.
　　l Interactivity – internet customers can customise their purchases. For example, some computer companies build to order allowing different combinations of hardware and software to be chosen.
　　l Integration – following on from interactivity, once an order has been placed, the pull process can begin by scheduling component ordering, production and despatch.
　　l Individualisation – for example, relevant offers can be made to each customer. If someone has bought a particular printer, then subsequently offers can be made to sell ink or toner cartridges.
　　l Independence (from location) – the location of the supplier is largely irrelevant provided a good procurement and distribution system is in place. This is covered further below under logistics.
　　l Industry (structure) – fast responses to customer demand is liable to affect industry structure as it will often favour larger, better-organised companies who make use of sophisticated ordering and delivery solutions. There are fewer and fewer places in which poor performers can hide.
　　信息技术是推动模型的很好地工具，因为它影响通过电子商务供应链上下游的6I：
　　情报 - 例如，互联网可以跟踪用户的活动，并分析哪些产品的销量的在长或下降。信息可以直接反馈进入数据库用于随后的分析和数据挖掘。
　　互动性 - 互联网的客户可以定制他们的需求。 例如，一些电脑公司按订单要求，允许不同的硬件和软件的组合。
　　集成 – 基于互动性，一旦已有订单，那么便可以推动整个过程开始订购，生产以及发货。
　　个体化 - 例如，为每一个客户提供不同的方案。如果有人买了一个特定的打印机，那么随后可以提供油墨或墨粉盒。
　　独立性（从位置来看） -假如有一个良好的采购和分销系统，那么供应商的位置在很大程度上是无关紧要的。这部分内容在下文涉及物流处进一步讲述。
　　产业（结构） - 对客户需求的快速响有益于影响行业结构，因为这个更偏向采用复杂的采购与交付系统的于较大的，组织更好地企业。表现欠佳是很难在此隐藏生存下去的。
　　SUPPLY CHAIN CHOICES
　　供应链选择
　　Supply chain pathways can be complex:
　　As with many other functions, outsourcing is increasingly used in supply chain management. Logistics companies can perform many supply chain functions more efficiently and economically than they can be done in-house, and we will see some examples below.
　　供应量途径是复杂的
　　与许多其他功能类似，服务外包也被日益运用在供应链管理中。物流企业可以使得许多供应链职能更经济有效，而且我们会看到下面的一些例子。
　　Some of the main choices to be made in supply chain pathways are as follows.
　　(1) Who transports the goods? The main solutions are:
　　the buyer transfers them using own transport
　　the seller transfers them using own transport
　　a logistics company transfers them
　　(2) What delivery pathways are best?
　　(3) Who stores the goods? The organisation, the supplier, or a logistics company.
　　(4) Which manufacturing, packaging, labelling, kitting, or completion tasks are carried out by the organisation and which by other parties? (Kitting relates to processes such as adding batteries).
　　(5) Who is responsible for quality assurance and proper handling of the goods?
　　(6) How should returns be handled?
　　(7) How can fast and responsive deliveries by arranged?
　　(8) Who handles customs clearance?
　　一些主要的选择在供应链途径中如下：
　　（1）谁运输的货物？主要的解决方案是：
　　客户使用自己的交通工具转移
　　销售商使用自己的交通工具转移
　　物流公司转移
　　（2）什么时候交货途径是*4的？
　　（3）谁存储的货物？公司，供应商或物流公司？
　　（4）公司负责制造，包装，标签，装备，或项目完成，那么其他各方完成什么？ （装备涉及如添加电池等过程）。
　　（5）谁负责质量保证和货物的妥善处理？
　　（6）应如何申报办理？
　　（7）如何能够安排快速反应及交付？
　　（8）负责处理通关？
　　SUPPLY CHAIN EXAMPLES
　　供应链案例
　　Pharmaceutical: Many pharmaceuticals, such as insulin and flu vaccines, are temperature-sensitive and have to be stored below, say, 5°C to maintain their efficacy and safety. Manufacturers therefore need ensure that their worldwide distribution, by air and road, to hospitals and pharmacies can be guaranteed to have complied with the storage required and that this can be verified and demonstrated. It is not realistic for pharmaceutical companies to carry out such specialised distribution themselves on a worldwide basis, as this would imply refrigerated warehouses, air freight and transportation in every country supplied. Many logistics companies offer suitable services.
　　药物行业：许多药物，如胰岛素和流感疫苗，是温度敏感的因此必须要被存储于5℃以下以保持其功效和安全性。因此，制造商需要展示并确保其全球范围内的航空、公路运输至医院和药店的存储条件。但是制药企业自己开展这样的在全球范围内专门分销的网络是不现实的，因为这将意味着冷藏仓库，空运和交通运输需要在每一个国家均可以提供。然而许多物流企业为此提供合适的服务。
　　Packaging: Transporting packaging is wasteful, adding both weight and volume to products. Therefore, an efficient distribution solution can be to export the basic products and then package those locally with using language-specific packaging. Once again, it can be inefficient for manufacturers to do this and frequently logistics companies carry out locally the packaging, printing instructions and labelling.
　　Customs clearance: Each country tends to have its own import regulations and tariffs. Navigating through these requires considerable local expertise and logistics companies are often used to facilitate the efficient international movement of goods.
　　Distribution: Imagine you distribute a product throughout Europe and customers need stock replenished frequently and quickly. One solution would be to set up your own warehouses and distribution vehicles in every country. However, you will realise that this would require vast resources. Almost certainly it would be better to outsource this to a logistics company as that is likely to enjoy great economies of scale. The logistics company can both warehouse the goods locally and provide transport to customers allowing a more just-in-time approach to be taken.
　　包装：运输包装浪费，增加产品的重量和体积。因此，高效的配送解决方案可以出口基本产品，然后在本地使用当地的语言再进行包装。
　　再次说明，生产商自己完成这个是低效率，然而应由经常物流公司开展本地的包装，印刷说明书和标签。
　　通关：每个国家往往拥有自己的进口条例和关税。
　　完成这些要求需要大量的本地专业知识和物流公司以用来促进货物的有效的国际运动。
　　分销：想象一下，你在整个欧洲分销一种产品，但是客户更新此产品的速度很快。一个解决办法是在每一个国家建立自己的仓库和配送车辆。但是你会发现，这需要大量的资源。几乎可以肯定，将此外包给一家物流公司将是更好的选择，因为这可以享受到巨大的规模经济。该物流公司可以当地有自己的仓库，并且可以实现零库存系统来及时提供运输服务至客户处。